In Germany the spatial planning function falls largely within the purview of Land (federal state) planning authorities. The latter are responsible for coordinating higher-order, regional and comprehensive planning, as well as for drawing up plans and programmes (outlines and objectives) for regional subject plans-where these have impacts on spatial development-and for the coordination of special projects and topic-based plans with spatial impacts with the requirements of spatial planning4. The prerequisite and foundation for this function is provided by the spatial development programmes and plans drawn up in a cooperative procedure of countervailing influence involving the various levels of administration. The major tasks falling within the ambit of spatial planning in Germany are the reduction of spatial and economic imbalances, the attainment of equivalent standards of living in all part of the country, promotion of sustainable development, and horizontal and vertical coordination of measures with spatial impact. In connection with the Social State Principle, set out in Art. 20 (1) and Art. 28 (1) of the Basic Law, these tasks establish a mandate for Parliament and for the State to be actively involved in the shaping of society in the interests of the freedom of its citizens within the community5.
The French term "aménagement du territoire" is most accurately translated-both from a purely linguistic point of view, as well as taking account of the way in which this policy area is perceived in France-as "spatial arrangement", i.e. as "action to make space more utilisable, and which promotes a more equitable spatial distribution of economic activities subject to the availability of natural and human resources" (following the Larousse encyclopaedia). Even if, at first sight, the difference to the German term may seem slight, the choice of the word "Ordnung" (ordering) in Germany-as opposed to "arrangement" in France-coupled with the German definition (general orientations and means) indicates clearly that in Germany the task is more broadly based. In addition to the idea of the utilisation of space, the German term also includes the notion of balance (i.e. coordination) and is not geared solely to the economic function of space. In France, on the other hand, although the term has a long history (going back to Colbert in the 17th century), it describes a somewhat narrower approach dominated by actions to promote economic utilisation of space which almost exclusively characterise the current understanding of the term "aménagement du territoire". These differences have in the past provided rich potential for misunderstanding in communication among specialists at European level and in policy practice. This in turn has impeded joint action and progress in this field.
According to the European Council's 1983 European Regional/Spatial Planning Charter, spatial planning (in that document termed "regional/spatial planning", Raumordung, aménagement du territoire) "gives geographical expression to the economic, social, cultural and ecological policies of a society"6. In 1982/3 all 22 Member States of the European Council were able to agree on this extremely far-reaching but general formula. Although over the last decade the European Council's Conference of Ministers for Spatial Development has dealt in detail with the specific major issues of European spatial development policy (urban systems, transport networks, sustainable development, cross-border cooperation)7, the Member States have hardly moved any closer together in their understanding of the associated tasks, despite the recommendations of the European Regional/Spatial Development Charter.
Up until just a few years ago terminology was still in use in the EU which was in some ways contradictory and inconsistent; the terms in question had their origins primarily in the fundamental contrast between the two attitudes to political and administrative structures, decision-making and control procedures in (centralised) France and (federal, decentralised) Germany (aménagement du territoire v. planning according to the principle of countervailing influence). There is an urgent need for unambiguous terminology for spatial planning and development which is able to command wide acceptance.
It is only since 1989, as the focus of discussion on "European Spatial Development" has shifted away from the European Council to the European Community (Parliament and Commission) and the Member States of the EC/EU have agreed in principle on active cooperation by Member States on all matters relating to spatial development, that it has become possible for the more recently constituted Committee for Spatial Development, after sitting for several years, to present the document Principles for a European Spatial Development Policy to the European Ministers for Spatial Development at their informal Council in Leipzig on 21-22 September 19948. In this document all EU Member States agree on common terminology based on the European Regional/Spatial Development Charter and the EU document Europe 2000+.
In more recent political usage at European level, the term now preferred is "spatial development policy"-which is both more immediately understandable and unencumbered by any particular national tradition. This term represents something of a pragmatic compromise between the various approaches and is also capable of being translated into the various languages without fear of misunderstanding. Despite the very small base of experience available on the use of this term, a provisional definition might be: "Policy which promotes the development of space in accordance with specific general principles", which implicitly entails the framing of these general principles. Developmental components and the economic element would be given more emphasis than is currently the case with the German term "Raumordnung", i.e. "spatial development policy" is somewhat narrower in scope than current German "spatial planning policy". Compared with the French term "aménagement du territoire", scope is provided, as shown by the Leipzig8 document, for opening to include other functions and activities beyond the purely economic utilisation of space. The new French law on spatial development, which came into force in 1995, makes reference to the first signs of rapprochement.
The German term "Raumordnung" has been used in the past (e.g. in the German version of the Treaty - Art. 130s EC Treaty under Title XIV Environment) in a context quite different to the task of European spatial development policy discussed here. It also appears in the German title of the Europe 2000 document9, but has, however, been replaced by the new term "Raumentwicklung" (spatial development) in the document Europe 2000+10 which has just recently been published11.
According to the Leipzig document, the main aims of "European Spatial Development Policy" can be expressed in terms of two major issues12a:
- the promotion of economic and social cohesion within the EU (long-term, economic and social progress) through the reduction of disparities in the level of development currently prevailing in the various regions and the creation of a more balanced spatial structure, and
- sustainable development with regard to both a form of economic development which not only shows respect for the environment, but also preserves existing resources and safeguards the possibility of their utilisation for coming generations, as well as to its compatibility with balanced spatial development and which encompasses all human activity.
The objective of balanced and "sustainable spatial development" can be regarded as being comprehensive in nature and as the basic principle underlying European spatial development. Implementation of these objectives at European, national, regional and communal level is, however, required to show special regard for regional diversity in Europe, and thus to the various levels of development which prevail in the regions, particularly in drawing up aims for regional development. In establishing these aims, which must be based on a more solid and balanced spatial structure as well as on respect for regional diversity and regional identities, and which furthermore must go hand in hand with wise management and preservation of the cultural and natural heritage, attention must be paid to harmonising the development, balancing and protection objectives. The operational aims of European spatial development must, therefore, be orientated around three general principles12b:
- a poly-central and balanced (as far as possible) system of city regions (avoiding concentration and the marginalisation of peripheral areas of the EU territory);
- a network of efficient infrastructures with low levels of impact on the environment (strengthening cohesion throughout EU territory);
- a European system of open spaces to safeguard natural resources (hierarchy of protected areas for various functions).
A European spatial development policy can, in addition, be justified by its function as a means of furthering consistency throughout the continent of Europe.
Against the backdrop of discussion on spatial planning and regional policy, a process of revising the EU's spatial development aims has been taking place over the course of the last few years. EU Member States and the European Commission are currently examining possible forms for an initial reaction to this development by means of corrective clarification of the Maastricht Treaty and in the form of a European Spatial Development Perspective13. One aspect of this process is that of reevaluating the Treaty on European Unity (in the version dated 7 February 1992) from the point of view of spatial development.
The Treaty does not include spatial planning/development as a policy area in its own right. However, cooperation among Member States and with the European Commission over recent years, particularly with the adoption of Principles for a European Spatial Development Policy in Leipzig in 1994, has revealed that the somewhat open term "spatial planning" can by now be regarded as being largely synonymous with the more far-reaching term "spatial development": in Germany the term "spatial planning policy" (Raumordnungspolitik)-currently undergoing a process of reinterpretation-will remain in use, with the corresponding term "European spatial development policy" being used in Europe with the sense expressed in the aims set out above.
With reference to the European level, it remains necessary to underline the fact that, although no competency for spatial planning or development policy can be derived from the EU Treaty, the provisions of the Treaty (raising the quality of life under Art. 2 EC Treaty; trans-European networks - Art. 129 b-d EC Treaty; economic and social cohesion - Art. 130 a-e EC Treaty; environment -Art. 130 r-t EC Treaty) do nonetheless provide a basis for greater activity on the part of the Community with regard to matters affecting spatial development as compared with the Single European Act. This has led to the emergence of departmental policies with a strong impact on spatial development, unfortunately, however, without the required horizontal and vertical coordination of these sectoral policies in the EU.
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